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The Xhosa people ( , ; ) are an ethnic group that migrated over centuries into Southern Africa eventually settling in South Africa. They are the second largest ethnic group in South Africa and are native speakers of the Xhosa language.
The Xhosa people are descendants of Nguni people clans who settled in the Southeastern part of Southern Africa displacing the original inhabitants, the Khoisan. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Xhosa people have inhabited the area since the 7th century.
Presently, over ten million Xhosa-speaking people are distributed across Southern Africa. In 1994 the self-governing bantustans of Transkei and Ciskei were incorporated into South Africa, becoming the Eastern Cape province.
the majority of Xhosa speakers, approximately 19.8 million, lived in the Eastern Cape, followed by the Western Cape (approximately 1 million), [[Gauteng]] (971,045), the Free State (546,192), [[KwaZulu-Natal]] (219,826), North West (214,461), [[Mpumalanga]] (46,553), the [[Northern Cape]] (51,228), and [[Limpopo]] (14,225).
There is a small but significant Xhosa-speaking (Mfengu) community in Zimbabwe, and their language, isiXhosa, is recognised as an official national language. This community was brought by Cecil John Rhodes for cheap labour in Zimbabwe mines in early 20th century.
Upon crossing mountains and rivers in South Africa, these farm-working agro-pastoralists brought their cattle and goats with them and absorbed the weaker San people groups in the region. They also brought weapons, notably their assegais and their Nguni shield and would form groups or chiefdoms and Monarchy mainly in what is now the Eastern Cape.
Formerly independent clans (many of Khoekhoe origin) and chiefdoms in the region became tributary to the amaTshawe and spoke isiXhosa as their primary language.
The Xhosa polity achieved political ascendancy over most of the Cape Khoe extending to the very fringes of the Cape Peninsula.
With the settlement of the Cape by Europeans in 1652, the native Khoisan populations were gradually pushed eastwards until, in the 1700s, the borders of the Cape Colony had pushed populations far enough east (with relations between colonist and native significantly broken down) to create a critical mass of hostile population to resist the colonists in the Eastern Cape. This sparked off the Xhosa Wars, which represent some of the longest military resistance to colonialism.
The historical end result would be the containment of large portions of the Cape native population into native reserves in the Easternmost part of the Cape. However, these populations would also continually serve as labour inside the Cape Colony. These native reserves would be re-branded "homelands" in the 20th century and would only be fully dismantled in 1994, with populations moving back into the wider Cape. In the 19th century, the Xhosas fought and repulsed many tribes that were escaping the Zulus in the Colony of Natal, this was during the historical mfecane. Those who were accepted were assimilated into the Xhosa cultural way of life and followed Xhosa traditions. The Xhosas called these various tribes Fengu people, meaning wanderers, and were made up of clans such as the amaBhaca, Bhele]], Hlubi people]], amaZizi and Rhadebe. To this day, the descendants of the amaMfengu are part of the Xhosa people and they speak isiXhosa and practice the Xhosa culture.
Xhosa unity and ability to fight off colonial encroachment was to be weakened by the and political divisions that followed the cattle-killing movement of 1856–1858. Historians now view this movement as a Millennialism response, both directly to a lung disease spreading among Xhosa cattle at the time, and less directly to the stress to Xhosa society caused by the continuing loss of their territory and autonomy.
Some historians argue that this early absorption into the wage economy is the ultimate origin of the long history of trade union membership and political leadership among Xhosa people. That history manifests itself today in high degrees of Xhosa representation in the leadership of the African National Congress (ANC), South Africa's ruling political party in the government.
Intonjane is the traditional initiation ceremony for girls, marking their passage into womanhood. Unlike boys, girls undergoing intonjane are not circumcised but experience seclusion and guidance on the roles, responsibilities, and cultural expectations of womanhood.
Ulwaluko is the cornerstone male initiation rite, meaning "transition" or "circumcision." It marks the transformation of an inkwenkwe (boy) into an indoda (man). The broader ulwaluko process comprises distinct phases:
1 Ukungena ("Entry"): Early morning circumcision is performed at the kraal (homestead enclosure) by an ingcibi (traditional surgeon). Elders and older men then accompany the initiate, called the umkhewtha, to the secluded ibhoma or bhoma—a traditional round hut usually situated in mountainous or remote areas—where he will spend the seclusion period.
2 Seclusion in the Iboma: Typically lasting two to three weeks (shorter nowadays due to schooling and work commitments, though a full month is occasionally practiced), the initiate lives in isolation. During this time, he receives teachings from elders and appointed attendants called ikhankatha about cultural responsibilities, community ethics, survival skills, and the meaning of manhood within Xhosa society. The initiate sheds his former clothes and dons special traditional attire symbolizing his new identity. In some communities, he carries a stick representing adulthood, maturity, and authority.
3 Ukuphuma ("Emergence" or "Homecoming"): Upon completing the seclusion period, the initiate exits the ibhoma and runs to the nearest river to bathe, cleansing himself physically and spiritually, symbolizing rebirth and full acceptance as a man by the community.
4 Umgidi: A vital celebration held on the initiate’s return home after ukuphuma. The family and wider community slaughter a sheep or cow in his honour, showering gifts and recognizing the newly initiated men ( amakrwala, plural of ikrwala). This communal feast emphasizes acceptance, new social status, and belonging.
5 Ukusoka: The post-initiation ritual that often follows umgidi, involving symbolic gift-giving and public affirmation of the initiate’s status as a man. This phase includes wearing distinct traditional garments and participation in social functions that reinforce the transition.
6 Burning of the Iboma: On the day of umgidi or shortly thereafter, the ibhoma and initiation paraphernalia—including the initiate’s old clothes discarded during seclusion—are ceremonially burnt. This ritual seals the initiate’s metamorphosis and spiritually closes the seclusion chapter.
The term umphumo sometimes refers to the homecoming ceremony synonymous with ukuphuma and umgidi, marking the initiate’s reintegration into the community as a recognized man.
Clan names, or isiduko, passed down orally, are fundamental to Xhosa identity and social relations. Knowing one’s isiduko is central to cultural belonging and cohesion.
Due to historic and ongoing health risks—including infections, complications, and fatalities tied to unsanitary circumcision practices—both governmental agencies and traditional authorities have implemented reforms to safeguard initiates:
Despite these efforts, challenges remain, with ongoing advocacy urging stricter enforcement to reduce injury and death rates linked to initiation complications—which since 1994 have exceeded 800.
Female initiation ( intonjane) also involves seclusion and cultural education but does not include circumcision.
The practice of ulwaluko includes traditional body adornment such as clay body paint ( umhlonyane or white ochre) and concludes with the burning of the ibhoma, symbolizing purification and rebirth.
These rites embody the transfer of personal identity, responsibilities, and communal duties from elders to younger generations.
Western criticisms often overlook the cultural context and the evolving safeguards embraced by Xhosa communities, many of whom strongly defend these traditions as essential to cultural preservation.
Post-birth rituals include imbeko and burial of the afterbirth and umbilical cord near the homestead, customs elaborated in greetings such as Inkaba yakho iphi? (“Where is your navel?”), which reveals one’s origins, clan, and social status.
Upon return of the man's family on the given date, they will pay the bride-price and bring along gifts of offering such as livestock and alcoholic beverages, iswazi, to be drunk by the family of the bride. Once the lobola from the man's negotiators is accepted then they will be considered married by the Xhosa tradition and the celebrations would commence. These include slaughtering of the livestock as a grateful gesture to their ancestors as well as pouring a considerable amount of the alcoholic beverages on the ground of the bride's household to give thanks to their ancestors. The groom's family is then welcomed into the family and traditional beer, Umqombothi, will be prepared for the groom's family as a token of appreciation from the bride's family.
The "umkhapho" (to accompany) ritual is performed in order to accompany the spirit of the deceased to the land of the ancestors. The local male clan leader or his proxy is the one who facilitates the process. The purpose of umkhapho is to keep the bonds between the deceased person and the bereaved alive so that the deceased may be able to return later and communicate as an ancestor. During this ritual, an animal such as a goat is slaughtered. A larger animal like a cow may also be slaughtered for an important person like a head of the family whilst a goat without a blemish may be slaughtered for others.
Further customs include the emptying the main bedroom of the bereaving family, known as 'indlu enkulu'. This room is where most of the last respects will be paid by family and friends. The emptying of the room is done in order to create space for extended family members to be able to mourn in the main room. The first family members and/or neighbours to arrive arrange the main bedroom to accommodate this seating arrangement by placing a traditional grass mat (ukhukho) or mattress on the floor.
Mourners do not require an invitation to attend a funeral and everyone who can and would like to attend is welcome. This means that the bereaved family has to cater for an unknown number of mourners. Traditionally, mourners were fed with 'inkobe', which is boiled dried corn and water, and the corn was taken from the family food reserves as well as donated by family members and neighbours. In the 21st century, it is regarded as taboo to feed mourners with 'inkobe' and, as a result of shame, funeral catering has become a lucrative business for the industry during burial events.
On the day of burial, before extended family members disperse to their homes, the ukuxukuxa (cleansing) ritual occurs and a goat or sheep or even a fowl is slaughtered.SIPHE POTELWA. (2016) The visual narrative relating to social performance of the Xhosa people during burial. MASTER OF VISUAL ARTS. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA http://hdl.handle.net/10500/22189 Accessed 15 October 2018Rebekah Lee (2012) Death in Slow Motion: Funerals, Ritual Practice and Road Danger in South Africa, African Studies,71:2,195-211, DOI:10.1080/00020184.2012.702965
Accessed 15 October 2018
Traditional foods include beef (Inyama yenkomo), mutton (Inyama yegusha), and goat meat (Inyama yebhokwe), sorghum, milk (often fermented milk, called "amasi"), pumpkins (amathanga), Mielie-meal (maize meal), samp (umngqusho), beans (iimbotyi), , like "rhabe", wild spinach reminiscent of sorrel, "imvomvo", the sweet sap of an aloe, or "ikhowa", a mushroom that grows after summer rains.
Traditional music features drums, rattles, whistles, flutes, mouth harps, and stringed-instruments and especially group singing accompanied by hand clapping. There are songs for various ritual occasions; one of the best-known Xhosa songs is a wedding song called "Qongqothwane", performed by Miriam Makeba as "Click Song #1". Besides Makeba, several modern groups record and perform in Xhosa. Missionaries introduced the Xhosa to Western choral singing. "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika", part of the National anthem of South Africa is a Xhosa hymn written in 1897 by Enoch Sontonga.
The first newspapers, novels, and plays in Xhosa appeared in the 19th century, and Xhosa poetry is also gaining renown.
Several films have been shot in the Xhosa language. U-Carmen eKhayelitsha is a modern remake of Bizet's 1875 opera Carmen. It is shot entirely in Xhosa, and combines music from the original opera with traditional African music. It takes place in the Cape Town township of Khayelitsha. The movie Black Panther also features the Xhosa language.
Social identities/markers with regards to age, gender, grade, marital status, social rank or role and the spiritual state can be ascertained through Xhosa beadwork. Symbolic references are drawn from the beads through the colour, pattern, formation and motifs. However, it ought to be taken into cognisance that some of these messages are limited to a certain group or between two people. In Xhosa culture beads represent the organisational framework of the people and the rites of passage that people have gone through as the beads are representative of the stages of one's life. Motifs on the beads often used include trees, diamonds, quadrangles, chevrons, triangles, circles, parallel lines that form a pattern that is exclusive to certain age groups. Although the beadwork has some cultural significance with certain motifs having exclusive meanings, the creator of the beadwork has creative control and can create and draw meaning from individual preference. Thus the meanings drawn from the beadwork are not rigidly set.
Among the Thembu (a tribe in the Eastern Cape often erroneously referred to be a Xhosa tribe), after circumcision, the men wore, and still wear, skirts, turbans and a wide bead collar. A waistcoat, long necklaces, throat bands, armbands, leggings and belts are part of his regalia. The dominant colours in the beadwork are white and navy blue, with some yellow and green beads symbolising fertility and a new life, respectively. Xhosa people regard white as the colour of purity and mediation; white beads are still used as offerings to spirits or to the creator. Amagqirha/diviners use white beads when communicating with the ancestors . These diviners also carry with them beaded spears, which are associated with the ancestors that inspire the diviner; beaded horns; and calabashes, to hold medicinal products or snuff. "Amageza", a veil made of beads, is also part of their regalia, they use these beads by swaying them in someone's eyes so as to induce a trance-like state.
Inkciyo is a beaded skirt that serves as a garment covering the pubic area. Among the Pondo people (Xhosa clan) the beads are turquoise and white in colour. This skirt is worn during a virginity testing ceremony among Xhosa people undergoing their rites of passage into womanhood.
Impempe is a whistle that has a necklace on it. The whistle symbolises one's introduction to adolescence.
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page 7-9 Accessed 17 July 2018
Under apartheid, adult literacy rates were as low as 30%, and studies estimated the literacy level of first-language Xhosa speakers at approximately 50%. Ethnologue.com, Ethnologue entry There have been advances since then, however.
Education in primary-schools serving Xhosa-speaking communities is conducted in Xhosa language, but this is replaced by English after the early primary grades. Xhosa is still considered as a studied subject, however, and it is possible to major in Xhosa at university level. Most of the students at Walter Sisulu University and University of Fort Hare speak Xhosa. Rhodes University in Grahamstown, additionally, offers courses in Xhosa for both mother-tongue and non-mother-tongue speakers. These courses both include a cultural studies component. Professor Russel H. Kaschula, Head of the School of Languages at Rhodes, has published multiple papers on Xhosa culture and oral literature.
The effects of government policies during the years of apartheid can still be seen in the poverty of the Xhosa who still reside in the Eastern Cape. During this time, Xhosa males could only seek employment in the mining industry as so-called migrant labourers. Since the collapse of apartheid, individuals can move freely.
After the breakdown of apartheid, migration to Gauteng and Cape Town has become increasingly common, especially amongst rural Xhosa people.
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